Scientists have just published in Nature that they have completed the entire connectome of a fruit fly: Network statistics of the whole-brain connectome of Drosophila. The map includes 140,000 neurons and more than 50 million connections. This is an incredible achievement that marks a milestone in neuroscience and is likely to advance our research.

A “connectome” is a complete map of all the neurons and all the connections in a brain. The ultimate goal is to map the entire human brain, which has 86 billion neurons and about 100 trillion connections – that’s more than six orders of magnitude greater than the drosophila. The human genome project was started in 2009 through the NIH, and today there are several efforts contributing to this goal.

Right now we have what is called a mesoscale connectome of the human brain. This is more detailed than a macroscopic map of human brain anatomy, but not as detailed as a microscopic map at the neuronal and synapse level. It’s in between, so mesoscale. Essentially we have built a mesoscale map of the human brain from functional MRI and similar data, showing brain regions and types of neurons at the millimeter scale and their connections. We also have mesoscale connectomes of other mammalian brains. These are highly useful, but the more detail we have obviously the better for research.

We can mark progress on developing connectomes in a number of ways – how is the technology improving, how much detail do we have on the human brain, and how complex is the most complex brain we have fully mapped. That last one just got its first entry – the fruit fly or drosophila brain.

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It is now generally accepted that 66 million years ago a large asteroid smacked into the Earth, causing the large Chicxulub crater off the coast of Mexico. This was a catastrophic event, affecting the entire globe. Fire rained down causing forest fires across much of the globe, while ash and debris blocked out the sun. A tsunami washed over North America – one site in North Dakota contains fossils from the day the asteroid hit, including fish with embedded asteroid debris. About 75% of species went extinct as a result, including all non-avian dinosaurs.

For a time there has been an alternate theory that intense vulcanism at the Deccan Traps near modern-day India is what did-in the dinosaurs, or at least set them up for the final coup de grace of the asteroid. I think the evidence strongly favors the asteroid hypothesis, and this is the way scientific opinion has been moving. Although the debate is by no means over, a majority of scientists now accept the asteroid hypothesis.

But there is also a wrinkle to the impact theory – perhaps there was more than one asteroid impact. I wrote in 2010 about this question, mentioning several other candidate craters that seem to date to around the same time. Now we have a new candidate for a second KT impact – the Nadir crater off the coast of West Africa.

Geologists first published about the Nadir crater in 2022, discussing it as a candidate crater. They wrote at the time:

“Our stratigraphic framework suggests that the crater formed at or near the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (~66 million years ago), approximately the same age as the Chicxulub impact crater. We hypothesize that this formed as part of a closely timed impact cluster or by breakup of a common parent asteroid.”

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You have definitely heard of electronics. You may (if you are a tech nerd like me) have heard of spintronics and photonics. Now there is also the possibility of orbitronics. What do these cool-sounding words mean?

Electronic technology is one of those core technologies that has transformed our civilization. Prior to harnessing electricity and developing electrical engineering we essentially had steam punk – mechanical, steam-powered technology. Electronics and electricity to power them, however, opened the door to countless gadgets, from electric lights, appliances, handheld devices, and eventually computer technology and the internet. I am occasionally reminded of how absolutely essential electricity is to my daily life during power outages. I get a brief glimpse of a pre-electronic world and – well, it’s rough. And that’s just a taste, with the real drudgery prolonged life without power would require.

Increasingly electronic devices are computerized, with embedded chips, possibly leading to the “internet of things”. Data centers eat an increasing percentage of our power production, and the latest AI applications will likely dramatically increase that percentage. Power use is now a limiting factor for such technology. It’s one main argument against widespread use of cryptocurrencies, for example. To illustrate the situation, Microsoft has just cut a deal to reopen Unit 1 at the Three-Mile Island nuclear power plant (not the one that melted down, that was Unit 2) with an agreement to purchase all of its power output for 20 years – to power its AI data center.

Therefore there is a lot of research into developing computer hardware that is not necessarily faster, smaller, or more powerful but is simply more energy efficient. We are getting to the limits of physics with the energy efficiency of electronic computers, however. Software engineers are also focusing on this issue, trying to create more energy-efficient algorithms. But it would be nice if the hardware itself used less energy. This is one of the big hopes for developing high temperature superconductors, but we have no idea how long or if we will develop anything usable in computing.

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